IONM in Cranial Surgery

Cortical mapping

The resection of tumors located within or near the eloquent cortex can result in postoperative sensory, motor and language deficits. Cortical brain mapping techniques have been used for many years to help the neurosurgeon identify and avoid these important brain structures. For tumors that impact the primary motor cortex, the main concern includes loss of motor functions in the contralateral face and upper and lower extremities. Two techniques have been developed for intraoperative cortical and subcortical mapping of the corticospinal tracts - the Penfield and Taniguchi techniques. Direct stimulation of the motor cortex along the homunculus can elicit compound muscle action potentials that are recorded by electrodes placed on corresponding muscle groups. The Penfield technique uses low frequency stimulation, and the current is delivered between the 2 balls of the probe. The Taniguchi technique uses high frequency stimulation, and the current travels between the probe and a reference electrode placed on the skull close to the motor strip. Either way, it is imperative to identify the motor response threshold, or the lowest intensity required to observe a motor response.

The following are stimulation parameters for the Penfield and Taniguchi techniques:

                             Penfield                  

(1) Stimulator type: Bipolar (2) Pulse type: Bi or Monophasic cathodal (3) Frequency: 50 Hz (4) Pulse width: 300-1000 microsec (5) Intensity: 2-20 mA (6) Duration: 2-5 sec with a 10-20 sec interval

The Penfield technique is particularly effective at detecting motor responses in tumors with limited corticospinal tract infiltration and sharp margins (reference). The Penfield technique may induce intraoperative seizures or result in false negative mapping.

                             Taniguchi

(1) Stimulator type: Monopolar (2) Pulse type: Monophasic anodal (3) Frequency: 250-500 Hz (4) Pulse width: 500 microsec (5) Intensity: 2-20 mA (6) Duration: 20 microsec

Neurovascular information

The brain is very sensitive to changes in blood flow. Cerebral blood flow is maintained and regulated by a homeostatic process called autoregulation. Cerebral blood flow is maintained at approximately 40-70 ml per minute for every 100 g of brain tissue, which occurs over a wide range of arterial blood pressures (~60 - 160 mm Hg) in a healthy brain. To maintain constant cerebral blood flow, several homeostatic mechanisms converge to maintain a balance between vasoconstriction and vasodilation, which includes myogenic, neurogenic, metabolic, and endothelial components (Armstead, Anesthesiol Clin. 2016; 34(3): 465–477).

Cranial nerve monitoring

The cranial nerves are monitored with for a variety of surgical procedures. The modalities that are monitored typically include spontaneous and triggered EMG recordings and motor evoked potentials.

1. The recurrent laryngeal nerve, a branch of the vagus nerve (CN X), is monitored for thyroidectomies. The recurrent laryngeal nerve, one of approximately 11 branches of CN X, innervates the intrinsic muscles of the larynx. This nerve is monitored using an endotracheal tube that is lined with recording electrodes.

2. The facial nerve (CN VII) is monitored for parotidectomies, tympanoplasties, mastoidectomies, microvascular decompressions, etc. Major branches of CN VII include the temporal, zygomatic, buccal, marginal mandibular, and cervical. The temporal branch innervates the frontalis, orbicularis oculi and corrugator supercilii muscles. The zygomatic branch innervates the orbicularis oculi muscle. The buccal branch innervates the orbicularis oris, buccinator and zygomaticus muscles. The marginal mandibular branch innervates the mentalis muscle. The cervical branch innervates the platysma, a sheet of muscle fibers extending from the collarbone to the jaw. Pairs of recording electrodes are typically placed at the muscles of each branch.

3. The glossopharyngeal (CN IX) can be monitored for microvascular decompressions and acoustic neuroma resections. For acoustic neuroma resections, multiple cranial nerves could be at risk of injury depending on the size of the tumor, including the vestibulocochlear (CN VIII), facial (CN VII) nerve, vagus nerve (CN X), hypoglossal nerve (CN XII), and accessory nerve (CN XI).